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FORTIFYING VILLAGES. 
CIIAPTER XXVII. 
Villages Fortified.-The Turkoman Raids exaggerated.-A Retrospect.- 
The Cossacks invade Khiva.-Urgentch.-Peter the Great's Idea about 
Khiva and India. - Prince Bekovitch. -Careful Preparations for the 
Expedition.-Points selected by the Shores of the Caspian.-Forts St. 
George, Alexander, and Krasnovodsk.-March across the Ust Urt.-De- 
struction of the Russians.-Expedition in 1859.-Chikishlar taken.- 
Military Posts established. - Chikishlar occupied in 1871. - Russian 
Statement about the Shah's Recognition of the Tzar's Claim to Ashou- 
rade.-Russians Established at Four Points of Turkoman Territory.- 
The Adayefs.-Forced Contributions. -Taxes raised 150 per Cent.- 
Dissatisfaction. - Letter from the Khan.-Adayefs overcome.-The 
Khan's Letters to the Emperor and to the Viceroy of the Caucasus.- 
The Russian Chancellor's Perfect Understanding with Mr. Gladstone's 
Government.-Count Schouvaloff's Statement to Lord Granville.-Posi- 
tive Assurances to Parliament about Khiva.-The Force employed by 
Kauffmann in his Advance upon Khiva.-The Different Columns.-Dif- 
ference of Opinion between Kryjinovsky and Kauffmann. -Capture of 
Khiva.-Markosoff's Failure.-War Indemnity.-Prince Gortschakoff's 
Principles. - Trpatment of the Turkomans. - General Kryjinovsky's 
Statement about this Subject.-Court-martial on Two Turkomans.--Sen. 
tence of Death.-Russian Treaty with Khiva.-Khivan Territory given 
to Bokhara. 
PRESENTLY we came upon some kibitkas, which were evi- 
dently constructed as a permanency. Wide ditches were dug 
around them, and high wattled palisades, which in every in- 
stance encircled the dwellings, showed us that the inmates fear- 
ed attack. Indeed, from this spot until we crossed the Oxus, 
each village was fortified in some such a manner. Formerly 
the Kirghiz and Turkomans lived in a continual state of war, 
the Kirghiz making marauding expeditions into their neigh- 
bors' territory, and carrying off horses and cattle; while their 
foe, in his turn, frequently crossed the Oxus in armed bands of 
from fifty to sixty horsemen, plundered the Kirghiz kibitkas, 
and carried away the spoil. At the present moment, from 
Russian sources we only hear of the marauding disposition of